Pricing Strategy and Channel Distribution Essay

Pricing Strategy and Channel Distribution Senior Concierge Services Kelly Spino Strayer University Dr. Robert Badowski Abstract Determine and discuss a pricing strategy (penetration or skimming). Determine and discuss pricing tactics (product line pricing, value pricing, differential pricing, or competing against private brands) to be used for your product. Identify any legal and ethical issues related to the pricing tactics. Prepare a marketing distribution channel analysis identifying the wholesaler, distributor, and retailer relationships. Discuss how the distribution strategy fits the product/service, target market, and overall marketing objectives for the company. As a service business, Senior Concierge Service will offer non medical care and maintenance for senior citizens and their families. This type of service business does not have many competitors, and pricing is consistent among the senior care industry. The pricing strategy for Senior Concierge Service will be to stay within the normal range for its services. Consumers will choose Senior Concierge Service over the competition not by cost, but by the quality of services offered. Price skimming is a pricing strategy in which a marketer sets a relatively high price for a product or service at first, and then the price is lowered over time. This is a version of price discrimination. Price skimming allows a business to recover its resources quickly before a competitor moves in and lowers their prices, lowering the market price. The objective of a price skimming strategy is to capture the consumer surplus. There are several potential problems with this strategy. It is effective only when a business is facing an inelastic demand curve (demand that is not very sensitive to a change in price). Skimming encourages the entry of competitors. Penetration pricing is a more suitable strategy in this case. This strategy is a pricing technique of setting a relatively low initial entry price, often lower than the market price, to attract new customers. This strategy works on the probability that customers will switch to the new business because of the lower price. Penetration pricing is most commonly associated with a marketing objective of increasing market hare or sales volume, rather than to make profit in the short term. This can take the competition by surprise, not giving them time to react. It can also create goodwill among the early customer segment. This can create more trade through word of mouth. Ethical thinking is responding to situations that deal with principles concerning human behavior in respect to the appropriateness and inappropriate ness of certain communication and to the decency and indecency of the intention and results of such actions (distinctions between right and wrong). Marketers are ethically responsible for what is marketed and the image that a product portrays. Marketers need to understand what good ethics are and how to incorporate good ethics in various marketing campaigns to better reach a targeted audience and to gain trust from customers. (Wikipedia. com) Unethical or controversial marketing strategies include: bait and switch, pyramid scheme, planned obsolescence, lock-in/ loyalty schemes, viral marketing, and, monopolies/oligopolies. In retail sales, a bait and switch is a form of fraud in which the party putting forth the fraud lures in customers by advertising a product or service at an unprofitably low price, and then reveals to potential customers that the advertised good is not available but that a substitute is. A pyramid scheme is a non-sustainable business model that involves the exchange of money primarily for enrolling other people into the scheme, without any product or service being delivered. Pyramid schemes are a form of fraud. The scheme collapses when no more people are willing to join the pyramid Planned obsolescence is the process of a product becoming obsolete or non-functional after a certain period or amount of use in a way that is planned or designed by the manufacturer. The purpose of planned obsolescence is to hide the real cost per use from the consumer, and charge a higher price than they would otherwise be willing to pay, or would be unwilling to spend all at once. For industries, planned obsolescence stimulates demand by encouraging purchasers to buy sooner if they still want a functioning product. In business, vendor lock-in or customer lock-in, makes a customer dependent on a vendor for products and services, unable to use another vendor without substantial switching costs. Lock-in costs which create barriers to market entry may result in antitrust action against a monopoly. Loyalty programs include frequent flier miles or points systems associated with credit card offers that can be used only with the original company, creating a perceived loss or cost when switching to a competitor. Most programs are able to get consumers to spend more money just to get to free or bonus item. Viral marketing and viral advertising refer to marketing techniques that use pre-existing social networks to produce increases in brand awareness. It can be word-of-mouth delivered or enhanced by the network effects of the Internet. Monopolies and oligopolies often use anti-competitive practices, which can have a negative impact on the economy. This is why company mergers are often examined closely by government regulators to avoid reducing competition in an industry. Since this business caters to seniors and their families, it is especially important for Senior Concierge Services to represent quality, value and confidence in its services and staff. The success of this company depends on compassionate, trustworthy, conscientious, and ethical care givers providing non-medical in-home care. A different take on the loyalty program would allow customers to receive a discount after x amount of service visits or when prepaying for multiple services. A marketing distribution channel analysis is a means used to transfer merchandise from the manufacturer to the end user. An intermediary in the channel is called a middleman. Channels normally range from two-level channels without intermediaries to five-level channels with three intermediaries. Intermediaries in the channel of distribution are used to facilitate the delivery of the merchandise as well as to transfer title, payments, and information about the merchandise. Distribution describes all the logistics involved in delivering a company’s products or services to the right place, at the right time, for the lowest cost. For many products and services, their manufacturers or providers use multiple channels of distribution. Well-chosen channels constitute a significant competitive advantage, while poorly conceived or chosen channels can doom even a superior product or service to failure in the market. Distribution channels may not be restricted to physical products alone. They may be just as important for moving a service from producer to consumer in certain sectors, since both direct and indirect channels may be used. There have also been some innovations in the distribution of services, such as an increase in franchising and in rental services. There has also been some indication hat service integration can benefit many providers. Senior Concierge Services will look to link with other service providers to create a mutually beneficial arrangement. Medical providers, beauticians, landscapers and general contractors would all be a good fit with the services offered. A distribution strategy defines how a business is going to create and satisfy demand for its products; how a business is going to move produ cts from point of creation to points of consumption, in a cost-effective manner; as well as defining how a business is going to manage its brand. Today’s customers shop and buy very differently than ever before. Access to high-quality information, via the internet, combined with their heightened price sensitivity, has created customers that are more sophisticated, better informed and often times, more demanding than customers of the past. A distribution strategy must be in sync with how the customers of Senior Concierge Service want to shop for services. Franchising is an option worth considering. For a fee, a small business owner can take advantage of the marketing research completed at the corporate level.

Domestic Violence and Substance Abuse

The topic I chose for this project was the link between domestic violence and substance abuse. From the research that I did, there is a definite link between domestic abuse and substance abuse. According to the National Coalition against domestic violence, â€Å"Regular alcohol abuse is one of the leading factors for intimate partner violence. † Approximately 61% of domestic violence offenders also have substance abuse problems. Domestic violence is the use of intentional emotional, psychological, sexual, or physical force by one family member or partner to control another.These acts can include, verbal abuse, threats, physical abuse, sexual abuse, destroying the victim's possessions, slapping, punching, kicking, burning, stabbing, shooting, or killing the victim's. A woman is beaten every 15 SECONDS in the United States, 30% of female trauma patients have been the victim of domestic violence. The medical costs for women who have been injured by their partners total to more th an 44 million annually. Researchers have found that one-fourth to one half of men who commit acts of domestic violence also have substance abuse issues.A study conducted by the â€Å"Department of Justice† of murders in families found that more than one half of defendants accused of murdering their spouses, as well as almost half of the victim's, had been drinking alcohol at the time of the incident. Alcohol and drugs may be used to cope with the physical, emotional, and/or psychological pain of family violence. â€Å"Regular alcohol abuse is one of the leading factors for intimate partner violence, also men who batter frequently use alcohol abuse as an excuse for their violence.They attempt to rid themselves of responsibility for their violence by blaming it on the effects of alcohol. † (NCADV) The effects on children of substance abusing parents is also great, â€Å"Children of substance abusing parents are more likely to experience physical, sexual, or emotional ab use than children in non-substance abusing households† (NCADV) In fact 80% of child abuse cases are linked with the use of alcohol and other drugs. These children are also at a greater risk of not only developing domestic violence issues of their own, but also substance abuse issues. An estimated 3 million children witness acts of violence against their mothers every year, and many believe that violent behavior is an acceptable way to express anger, frustration, or a will to control. † (Recovery Network) Common myths about domestic violence are as follows: domestic violence is caused by substance abuse, this is not true, domestic violence and substance abuse are two separate problems and must be treated separately.Two, substance abusers cannot control their violent behavior, contrary to that belief, it had been proven that batterers know how to hide the violence they inflict, even under the influence of alcohol or drugs. And three, treating the substance abuse issues wil l end the domestic violence, this is also a myth because there is no guarantee that successful treatment for substance abuse will stop the domestic violence. The evidence between the link in domestic violence and substance abuse is great.In fact, â€Å"About 40% of children from violent homes believe that their fathers had a drinking problem and that they were more abusive when drinking. † (Recovery Network) Also, when a child is subjected to physical abuse, they are more like to develop drug abuse later in life. Another interesting fact is that â€Å"teachers have reported a need for protective services three times more often for children who are being raised by someone with an addiction than for other children† (Recovery Network)Other connections I learned about while doing my research are that many times alcohol and other drug abuse may be used to cope with the physical. Emotional, and/or psychological pain of family violence. Often times the behavior is learned, be cause we learn in our families and social groups that certain events or behaviors are connected and expected. Denial often is a major factor in domestic violence too, because an abusive individual excuses their violent behavior and, are often excused by their partners and other family members because they were drunk and â€Å"not in control. Also, â€Å"Research supports the connection between substance abuse and domestic violence. Members of families in which one or both parents abuse substances are considered to be at high risk for physically abusing and neglecting their children. † (Recovery Network) The National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse found that as many as 80% of child abuse cases are associated with the use of alcohol and other drugs, and the link between child abuse and others forms of domestic violence is well established.As far as treatment, the treatment for domestic violence and substance abuse needs to be approached separately. Because, in most cases sub stance abuse treatment does not address the anger management problems that are associated with domestic violence. â€Å"Effective treatment for domestic violence offenders includes cognitive therapy, which helps the offender develop alternate ways of reacting to anger, and skill development, which helps the offender learn how to establish loving relationships that are free from violence. (Sober living by the sea) I learned a lot from doing this paper. As a woman who has been through domestic violence myself, it was intriguing to learn about the links between domestic violence and substance abuse. When I was married to my ex-husband, we both did marijuana, he had a lot of mood swings and violent tendencies. Now that I look back and now that I know what I know about the connection of domestic violence and substance abuse, I can see where he maybe would have thought his actions were â€Å"justified. Also, knowing what I know now, I think it would be a tai assessment that although he received treatment with his substance abuse issues and has been sober for about 7 years, he never received treatment for the anger issues and I can still see those types of behaviors in him today. Living with someone for that long ,you get to know aha their moods are, and I still know to this day when I can and when I cannot approach him about something, basically, I know what kind of mood he is in as soon as I see him.His anger is written all over his face, it is days like that when I realize that I am happy I was able to walk away from the relationship. The fear of never knowing how someone is going to react and always having to walk â€Å"on eggshells† is a heavy burden to live with everyday. Also being a recovering addict, I know that a lot of my own anger came from my guilt, resentments, and self-loathing, working on those issues and learning to love me for me and also working with the counselors at the Shock program and in treatment, helped me to be able to control my a nger and take a â€Å"timeout† if I need to.Now that myself and my ex-husband are sober, I can only hope that we will have broken the cycle of addiction and domestic abuse so that our children do not have to experience the same thing. Domestic violence and substance abuse are two huge problems that, I think, is becoming more and more of a problem in the world today. Being able to recognize the link between these two, I hope that I as a counselor, will be able to help more of my clients who are experiencing the same kind of situation.

Martha Rinaldi Essay

Martha Rinaldi has been an assistant product manager at leading beverage company Potomac Waters since graduating from business school. Rinaldi is frustrated by her relationships with her boss and a close co-worker. Even though she works hard to please her manager, she has received a negative performance evaluation for her first four months. Should Rinaldi leave Potomac for a standing job offer at a company she previously interned with or try to improve her current situation? Martha Rinaldi has been an assistant product manager at leading beverage company Potomac Waters since graduating from business school. Rinaldi is frustrated by her relationships with her boss and a close co-worker. Even though she works hard to please her manager, she has received a negative performance evaluation for her first four months. Should Rinaldi leave Potomac for a standing job offer at a company she previously interned with or try to improve her current situation? 30,000 Term Papers To Choose From.. Find Academic, Research, College, and University Term Papers Search Our Catalog For A Term Paper, Book Report, Case Study or Essay. We Provide Custom Research, Term Paper Writing, Pre-written Reports and Editing†¦ â€Å"$name† TERM PAPERS Academic Term Papers Catalog MARTHA RINALDI: SHOULD SHE STAY OR SHOULD SHE GO? HARVARD BUSINESS BRIEF CASE 4310 SOLUTION. 19150. MARTHA RINALDI: SHOULD SHE STAY OR SHOULD SHE GO? HARVARD BUSINESS BRIEF CASE 4310 SOLUTION. This paper provides a Berkeley Research analysis  and case solution to a Harvard Business organizational behavior case study by Linda A. Hill and Mark Rennella on the challenges of building power and credibility in a new job. The case focuses on the career and work frustrations of Martha Rinaldi, an assistant product manager at a leading beverage company. The case analysis includes problem identification, problem analysis, assessment of alternatives, and recommendations. APA Style. 12 pages, 7 footnotes, 7 bibliographic sources. 3,450 words. About Berkeley Research Case Solutions: Berkeley Research has offered authoritative case solutions to Harvard Business School case studies since 1984. We also feature solutions to case studies from other leading graduate business schools including Stanford, Darden, Wharton and Ivey. Our case solutions feature in-depth analysis drawing on appropri ate analytical tools including S.W.O.T., P.E.S.T. and Five Forces analyses, and include secondary references from scholarly journals and leading business periodicals. We do not offer student-written essays; all of our case solutions are professionally written by MBA and DBA –degreed writers with proven aptitude and long experience in writing insightful case solutions. Unlike other case solutions made available on the Internet without competent evaluation of their merits, Berkeley Research case solutions are peer reviewed by a panel of case analysts prior to being offered on our website. The strongest and most gratifying endorsement of the quality of our case solutions comes from our customers: over two-thirds of our case study sales are made to repeat customers, graduate students and executives enrolled in some of the most distinguished and selective graduate business programs, and who necessarily set a high bar for analytical rigor and expository clarity. The Berkeley Research case study solution is a premium product intended for a discerning audience. TAGS: Harvard business case solution, conflict management, interpersonal relations, pers onal strategy, talent management, communication, power and influence, leadership, career development, supervisor-subordinate relations RELATED PAPERS Kay Sunderland, Making the Grade at Attain Learning Harvard Case Solution Jamie Turner at MLI Harvard Case Solution Leadership and Team Development Research Paper Thomas Green: Power, Office Politics and a Career in Crisis Harvard Business Case Solution Terracog Global Positioning Systems: Conflict and Communication on Project Aerial Harvard Case Solution Bob Knowlton Case Study Solution

Significance Of Animals Protection In Modern World Essay - 15

Significance Of Animals Protection In Modern World - Essay Example Every day in a great number of countries in the world, animals are exposed to experiments in various researches and testing of different kinds of products, which range from medicine and cosmetics to children toys and cleaning products. During such researches and tests, animals are poisoned by toxic substances, burned, implanted electrodes, blinded etc. In fact, the list of invasive and painful procedures goes on. As a result, animals experience severe suffering, for example, electric shock, isolation from other animals, separation of infants from adult animals, withholding of water and food and so on, which usually ends with death. Animals do not deserve such an inhuman attitude, which is often based on the idea that human beings are more intelligent than animals are. However, this argument is not relevant to the issue at all: smart people suffer from pain the same way people with lower IQ do. It is a well-known fact that animals experience pain as well, and the fact that a mouse doe s not understand physical laws or does not read poetry cannot be perceived as a basis for making it suffer. What is more, a wide range of animals with advanced nervous systems demonstrate abilities characteristic of human beings, for example, experiencing emotions (Panksepp 14). Therefore, the argument against animal rights based on the difference between human beings and animals may be regarded as inconsistent. In addition to this, animal testing, which leads to animal suffering, is avoidable today. The matter is that the evolutionary developments in the scientific sphere give an opportunity to avoid using animals for testing and experiments. In particular, in accordance with Ganganatha and Kuppast, who published their work in International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, today there are alternatives to animal testing methods, which are based on three R’s that is Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement.

A Critical Exploration of Models of Continuous Personal and Essay

A Critical Exploration of Models of Continuous Personal and Professional Development - Essay Example These models emphasize on improving the standard of teaching in the colleges and also on creating a learning culture in the college. The creation of a culture of support and collaboration extend the possibilities for self improvement of trainee teachers (Rodrigues 2005). The models for continuous personal and professional development make use of a range of information presented in the development plan of the colleges. These models focus on the needs of the college which are identified through self evaluation. The models also take into consideration the feedback they obtain from the staff and other stakeholders like the students and parents. Performance appraisals which were conducted for the teachers also act as a source of information for these models. The national and local priorities are also taken into consideration. The skill development in the teachers through continuous personal and professional development is done on the basis on well recognized competency frameworks like Dfes Teachers Standards Framework, etc (Kumar 2008). The quality assurance departments make sure that the competency framework being used by these models are of high quality and standard. The continuous personal and professional development processes aim to minimize the hierarchical or the bureaucratic nature of working in the colleges and aim to develop a culture of inclusion. The continuous personal and professional development models are implemented by firstly nominating a leader for the college who takes entire responsibility for the implementation of these models (M.) 1978). The leader receives adequate training which is required for him to manage his responsibilities well. It is this leader who identifies the needs of the college trainee teachers and takes into consideration their performance appraisals. He is responsible to annually give a report to the management regarding the priorities which these development models must

To IP and Beyond Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

To IP and Beyond - Essay Example Additionally, it is believed to be a biggest success for the reason that it successfully provided a small number of fundamental capabilities and services that everyone required at that time. In this scenario, some of the well-known applications and services that were supported by these protocols included remote logon, file transfer, and electronic mail (email) to a large number of users as well as server systems. In fact, a number of different systems located in a small building or office can employ TCP/IP (in conjunction with additional protocols) on a single local area network (LAN). Basically, this is a combination of two protocols, in which the internet protocol (IP) was established to fulfill a need for consistency of distinctiveness. Hence, the development of this protocol allowed all computers across the earth to share data and information the same way. In fact, it is the most affordable method to make a universal network. In addition, the IP part of the protocol allows effect ive routing from one location of a building to the organization’s central network, afterward to provincial networks, and ultimately to the worldwide Internet. As it was developed by DOD so it was intended to be used to provide support and services in battlefield. In view of the fact that on the battleground a communication medium or network will be used to maintain damage, hence the DOD developed TCP/IP to be vigorous and without human intervention recover from any phone line or terminal breakdown. In this scenario, this design facilitated them to construct a very large network with less central management. Though, due to the computerized processing, there was a chance that a wide variety of network issues can go uncorrected and unidentified for long periods of time. On the other hand, the development of TCP was aimed at providing the connection-oriented communication. In this scenario, the basic purpose of

Nursing Research Article Review Worksheet Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Nursing Article Review Worksheet - Research Paper Example Moreover, will music therapy to able to display the same ameliorating effects as it has done for other patients dealing with pain management? As music therapy has had a demonstrable effect in lessening the pain of many patients that suffer from other forms of disease, it is the goal of the research to determine if the same can be said for those patients who are suffering from breast cancer. The theoretical framework hinges upon the fact that music therapy has been demonstrably proven to reduce the prevalence of pain within other patients. As such, the researchers are acutely interested to see if such a theoretical framework can extend to their research group/question. In this way although the research questions are of a relatively complex nature, the theoretical framework within which the research is housed is quite simple. The article itself is highly quantitative as it seeks to understand the total benefits that music therapy will affect on the cancer patients through determinate and metricized system of quantifiable measurements. Furthermore, the consecutive and logical grouping of the data helps the analyst not only to quickly recognize the piece’s overall quantitative merit but also to rapidly draw inference from the numbers and statistics

Global warming Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Global warming - Research Paper Example The planet’s temperature is constantly rising, and the trend has continued over the years. Globally, the average surface temperature has increased much in some degrees, and this is basically the effect of the greenhouse. Naturally the earth’s temperature depends on the amount of energy entering and leaving the planet. But when that later like blanket has been formed, the incoming energy from the sun gets absorbed and as a result, the earth warms. With the absence of this layer, the energy from the sun is therefore reflected back into the space, there will be no warming effect. Due to the fact that this energy has been reflected back, the earth experiences a cooling effect. Balancing of the energy leaving and entering the earth’s surface has been over a long period of time changed by both human and natural factors (Houghton, 2004). This has brought; variations in the sun’s energy reaching the earth’s surface, changes have occurred in the reflectivity of earth’s surface and that of the atmosphere. It has also caused major changes in the greenhouse effect, which has considerably affected the amount of heat that is retained in the earth’s atmosphere. ... And when all these challenges dawns at once, human beings and other living organisms have no chance rather to be exposed climate related health effects, increased risks of illnesses and more death that are as a result of extreme heat and heat waves from the sun (Have, Agius, & Unesco.2006). There is no short cut to curb these climate related problems. The only way out is to act now and try if we can reduce our carbon emissions in to the atmosphere, plant more trees, slow down the pace of global warming. And to the next generation, we should pass on to them a healthier and a safer world. The main goal of environmental policy is to ensure that the environment is protected for the future generation. The regulations are created to ensure that there is a great control of disposal of hazardous waste into the environment and to increase the quality of water and air which circulates in the atmosphere. When all these are taken into control, to a greater extent, it is going to balance the amou nt of energy entering and leaving the earth surface. It will also boost the reflectivity of the earth’s surface and that of the atmosphere which in turn brings the cooling effect to the earth. It will considerably bring to control the climatic change that results into greenhouse effect that determines the amount of heat retained in the atmosphere. Different governments in the world have written and established various policies (Robbins,et al.2010). These rules and regulations have to a lesser extent helped to curb the problem of global warming that has claimed the lives of innocent citizens, deteriorated world economies and destruction of properties due to earth quakes.

Leadership in TQM Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Leadership in TQM Theory - Essay Example This is an erroneous assumption, predicated on a misunderstanding of the distinction between authoritarian leadership and involved, proactive leadership. The distinction between the two is not only real but is one which makes all the difference between organisational success and failure; between organisational atrophy and organisational flexibility. As Baker et al. (1993) asserts, effective organisational leadership is a leadership which acknowledges the inherent value of delegation and autonomy but which at the same time, is present and involved; a leadership which displays, not only acumen in decision-making and strategic planning but which has the capacity to proactively to extraordinary circumstances through the utilisation of both change and crisis is management tools, such as demanded by the specific of the situation/crisis/change at hand. The effective leader is, in other words, one who has successfully negotiated the fine balance between involvement and delegation. Defining effective leadership is a challenging endeavour and within the limits of the present research, an impossible one. Nevertheless, by clarifying the research's focus and delimiting the scope of its exploration, the study shall communicate the characteristics of the effective leader within the matrix of Total Quality Management [TQM]. The reason for selecting TQM as the theoretical paradigm from within which the characteristics of the effective leader shall be defined is not because it happens to be the most popular and result-oriented management paradigm today but because, as Gilbert (2004) notes, leadership within TQM organisations are, by definition, highly effective leaders who have successfully negotiated between the exigencies of involvement and delegation, on the one hand, and who function as the founding bloc for an organisational culture which, beyond being fundamentally founded upon strategic management and planning, is constructively responsive to both change and cri sis. Indeed, empirical studies have established that leaders within TQM organisations tends towards the display of higher levels of decision-making and strategic planning acumen than those in non-TQM organisations because strategic planning is both research-based and holistic, on the one hand and because decision-making is shared and knowledge-based, on the other. Following a review of the characteristics of the effective leader and an analysis of effective leadership within the matrix of strategic planning and decision making the research shall look towards case studies drawn from the IT sector in order to demonstrate the extent to which effective leadership is an inherently TQM one, based on an acknowledgement of the imperatives of information-based strategic planning and shared decision-making, while ineffective leadership is the very antithesis of the stated. 2 Leadership in TQM Theory TQM is, as Easton and Jarrell (1998) maintain, a comprehensive organisational management system which is based upon the integration of several managerial perspectives, approaches and theories into one, in acknowledgement of the complexity of organisational structures themselves. However,

Driving the Dairy business Essay Example for Free

Driving the Dairy business Essay In the article â€Å"Driving the Dairy business†, Howard assert that, this article focuses on the impact of unprecedented food inflation to bakery and dairy products in the U.S. It cites that recent price volatility fueled by a weak dollar, rising energy costs, consumer wariness, competitive pressure and other factors is making it hard to market staples like bakery and dairy items, primarily fluid milk. According to the article, the weakening on the commodity in cheese and nonfat dry milk drives the prices for dairy in general. Application of the content to my group project A company profile of Saputo Inc., which is engaged in manufacturing and marketing of dairy products like milk, cream, sour cream, yogurt and cottage cheese, is presented. An overview of the company is given, along with key facts including contact information, number of employees and revenues. Positive aspects of the article In the article , Howard use the specific numbers and statistics to illustrate the worst food inflation in nearly decades. Also , the author quote some famous person or the authority system said Dairy is a staple item that has been subjected to some record retail price points. That is now softening, which may be good news for the consumer. The flip side is that it will hurt the farmers in the short term so we may see further attrition in the agricultural community because of that Missing items and points The analysis of how to driving dairy business. Personal reflections on the article As the report noted, Smaller households are less likely to shop (a supermarket or convenience store) in-store bakery, in large part because they dont want to deal with waste or spoilage from products that are too big for them to consume. As the categories in cheese and nonfat dry milk are weakened on the commodity side it ultimately drives the prices for dairy in general. If the larger stores like Costco, Wal-Mart and Price Chopper are moving prices down, overall market prices are moving down with them. A lot of the big stores–the club stores, the large supermarkets and the mass merchandisers–will move their milk price each month, going up or going down

Oral Fast Disintegrating Anti-allergic Film Using Hot-melt

Oral Fast Disintegrating Anti-allergic Film Using Hot-melt Development and Evaluation of an Oral Fast Disintegrating Anti-allergic Film Using Hot-melt Extrusion Technology Manjeet B. Pimparade1, Anh Vo1, Abhijeet S. Maurya1, Joseph T. Morott1, Xin Feng1, Dong Wuk Kim1, Vijay I. Kulkarni1, Roshan Tiwari1, K. Vanaja2, Reena. Murthy2, H. N. Shivakumar2, D. Neupane3, S. R. Mishra3, S. N. Murthy1, Michael. A. Repka1,4* 1Department of Pharmaceutics Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA 2Institute for Drug Delivery and Biomedical Research, Bangalore, India 3Department of Physics, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA 4Pii Center for Pharmaceutical Technology, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA *Address for correspondence: Michael A. Repka, D.D.S., Ph.D. Professor and Chair, Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery Director, Pii Center for Pharmaceutical Technology School of Pharmacy The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677 Abstract The main objective of this novel study was to develop chlorpheniramine maleate orally disintegrating films (ODF) using hot-melt extrusion technology and evaluate the characteristics of the formulation using in vitro and in vivo methods. Modified starch with glycerol was used as a polymer matrix for melt extrusion. Sweetening and saliva-simulating agents were incorporated to improve palatability and lower the disintegration time of film formulations. A standard screw configuration was applied, and the last zone of the barrel was opened to discharge water vapors, which helped to manufacture non-sticky, clear, and uniform films. The film formulations demonstrated rapid disintegration times (6-11 s) and more than 95% dissolution in 5 min. In addition, the films had characteristic mechanical properties that were helpful in handling and storage. An animal model was employed to determine the taste masking of melt-extruded films. The lead film formulation was subjected to a human panel for e valuation of extent of taste masking and disintegration. Keyword: Hot-melt extrusion, Orally disintegrating film, Taste-masking, Pediatric and geriatric, Modified starch, Human panel taste evaluation, Continuous manufacturing, Chlorpheniramine maleate Introduction It is estimated that 26-50% of the patient population find difficulty in swallowing tablets and hard gelatin capsules [1]. These patients mainly include the elderly who have difficulty taking conventional oral dosage forms because of hand tremors and dysphagia, and pediatric patients who are often fearful of taking solid oral dosage forms owing to their underdeveloped muscular and nervous systems [2]. In addition, patients who are mentally ill, developmentally disabled, uncooperative, on reduced liquid-intake plans or nauseated, and travelers who may not have access to clean water also are candidates for ODFs [3, 4]. The traditional alternative to swallowing difficulties is formulating a drug substance in liquid dosage form. However, liquid dosage forms have several limitations, such as the need for measuring, bulkiness, physical, chemical, and microbial stability issues, spoilage, inaccurate dosing, and organoleptic properties of drug and drug formulations [5]. Conventional solid oral formulations contributed significantly to minimizing the shortcomings of liquid dosage forms. The crushing of tablets or opening of capsules is a straightforward way for patients or caregivers to lessen the swallowing difficulties. However, serious consequences may be associated with modified-release, enteric-coated, and cytotoxic or hormonal medicines, as these formulations are designed for special cases [6]. Moreover, European Medical Agency does not recommend the splitting or crushing of tablets because the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) is not evenly distributed in the tablet [7, 8]. Thus, it is very convenient to develop a formulation that disintegrates in the oral cavity and eases the swallowing process. In recent years, fast disintegrating oral formulations established their importance in patient population suffering from dysphagia, stroke, thyroid disorder, Parkinsons disease, multiple sclerosis, and cerebral palsy [9]. Commercially available orodispersible tablets (ODT) and orodispersible films (ODF) are the most successful platforms for pharmaceutical product development. ODTs are solid oral dosage forms that disintegrate rapidly, typically within 30 s, with or without the administration of additional water [10]. They provided great comfort to patients with swallowing difficulties [11]. Despite the benefits of ODTs, there are some challenges in their processing and handling owing to their fragility and brittleness, which warrant special package for protection during storage and transportation [12]. The films are flexible and not as fragile as most ODTs. Hence, there is ease in transportation, consumer handling, and storage of ODFs. ODF can be defined as a dosage form that employs a water-soluble polymer (generally a hydrocolloid, which may be a bioadhesive polymer), which allows the dosage form to quickly wet, adhere, and dissolve to release the drug when placed on the tongue or in the oral cavity [5]. ODF alleviated patient discomforts associated with swallowing disabilities without compromising the therapeutic effect. In addition, it could ease the administration of drugs to pediatric patient population [13]. Moreover, ODF can be helpful in curtailing dose variations in younger patients, in whom liquid formulations are the most accepted way of drug delivery. Currently, solvent casting methods are commonly employed to produce ODFs, owing to its ease of production and low set up costs [14, 15]. Despite its wide application, products with batch-to-batch variation may be produced because of multiple steps involved in the production. In addition, air entrapment in the films is commonly observed in solvent casting methods, which leads to dose variations and inappropriate esthetic appearance of the product [15]. The use of large amounts of solvent is one of the biggest shortcomings of this method as solvent removal and disposal is a long and tedious process. Thus, it is very beneficial to develop a solvent-free, quick, and continuous process that could diminish the shortcomings of the current manufacturing method. Hot melt extrusion (HME) is a one-step, solvent-free continuous manufacturing process, which established itself in the pharmaceutical arena for the development of various solid oral formulations [16-25]. This technology involves the use of temperature and shear to process polymer blends and extrude them through a die of the desired design [26]. HME could be an effective alternative to the solvent casting method as it diminishes the inherent shortcomings, such as the use of solvents and problems involved in the mixing and drying steps. This ultimately makes HME process efficient and cost effective for patients [27, 28]. This study has three main objectives: to 1) develop a robust patient-friendly orally fast disintegrating film of chlorpheniramine maleate (CPM); 2) evaluate these formulations with different in vitro and in vivo techniques, and 3) demonstrate the feasibility of HME techniques for continuous manufacturing of ODF without the use of solvents. To the best of our knowledge, there is no published literature on the manufacturing of orally fast disintegrating formulations using HME technology and evaluation of films using in vitro and in vivo techniques. Materials and Methods 2.1. Materials CPM was purchased from MP Biomedicals, LLC (Solon, OH, USA). Lycoat RS 780 (modified starch) was supplied by Roquette America Inc. (Keokuk, IA, USA). Citric acid and glycerol were ordered from Fisher Scientific (Pittsburgh PA, USA). Magnasweet sample was gifted by Mafco worldwide LLC (Camden, NJ, USA). Sucralose was supplied by JK Sucralose Inc. (Edison, New Jersey, USA). 2.2. Thermal analysis Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) studies (Perkin Elmer Pyris 1, Shelton, CT, USA) were performed to estimate the thermal stability of the API and excipients during HME processing. Data were analyzed using Pyris software. The API excipients were heated from 30-160à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ at 20à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ /min. 2.3. Material preparation and blending CPM, citric acid, and Lycoat RS 780 were dry mixed at amounts outlined in Table 1 using a V-shell blender (GlobePharma, Maxiblend, New Brunswick, NJ, USA) after passing through an ASTM #30 mesh. The plasticizer (glycerol with dissolved sucralose and Magnasweet) was incorporated slowly into a high-shear mixer (Model RSI 3VG, Robot Coupe Industrial Division, Ridgeland, MS, USA) containing the previously mixed blend with all excipients and allowed to blend for 10 min. 2.4. Hot melt extrusion The blends were melt-extruded using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder (16 mm Prism EuroLab, ThermoFisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA, USA) at 30-50 rpm over a temperature range of 100-  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   110à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™. A degassing port was introduced in the last zone of the barrel to release excess water vapor, which would otherwise produce unwanted bubbles in the films. Additionally, the film die was installed with preset thickness. The physical blend of the formulation was manually fed into the hopper, and the films were collected, wrapped in wax paper, sealed, and stored in polyethylene bags at 25à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ with 40% relative humidity. 2.5. Film characterizations 2.5.1 Film thickness and mechanical properties The mechanical properties of the films were evaluated using the TA.XTPlus texture analyzer equipped with 5 kg load cell (Texture Technologies, Scarsdale, NY, USA). The films were cut into dumbbell shaped specimens with a width and length of 1.55 and 15.5 mm, respectively, and placed longitudinally in tensile grip probe on the texture analyzer. The films were tested at a crosshead speed of 2 mm/min and held between two clamps positioned at 5 mm. The results of film samples that broke at and not between the clamps were not included in the calculations. Each film formulation was measured with ten replicates [29]. The tensile strength (Ts) and percent elongation (%E) were calculated using the results from texture analyzer. Film thickness was measured using an electronic caliper (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA, USA) at different positions. 2.5.2 Disintegration test The film was cut into an appropriate size as per the dose (4 mg) and placed in a petri dish. Then, 100  µL artificial salivary media was added, and the time for complete disintegration of the film was recorded (n =10). 2.5.3 Surface pH of film The film was moistened using 5  µL water and a contact electrode touched the surface of the film (Oaktonà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ pH meter, Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA, USA), followed by pH measurement (n=6) 2.6. Analytical method A Waters high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system equipped with a Water 600 binary pump, Waters 2489 UV/detector, and Waters ® 717 plus autosampler (Waters Technologies Corporation, Milford, MA, USA), and a Phenomenex Luna 5  µm C18 (2) 250 x 4.6 mm column (Torrance, CA, USA) were used at a detection wavelength of 254 nm. The mobile phase consisted of 7.5 mM monobasic potassium phosphate in methanol and water at a ratio of 62.5:37.5 (v/v). The mobile phase flow rate was maintained at 1.0 mL/min, and an injection volume of 10 ÃŽÂ ¼L was used [30]. HPLC data were analyzed using Empower 2 software (Milford, MA, USA). 2.7. In vitro dissolution studies The films for dissolution studies were cut into sizes relative to the dose of CPM (4 mg). The drug profile was evaluated using a USP dissolution apparatus-I (Hanson SR8, Chatsworth, CA) maintained at 37  ± 0.5à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ and having a shaft rotation speed of 100 rpm. The dissolution test was performed using 900 mL phosphate buffer (pH 6.8). The samples were withdrawn at 5, 10, and 30 min and analyzed using the HPLC- UV system. 2.8. X-ray diffraction studies (XRD) X-Ray diffraction (Bruker D8 Advance, Madison, MI, USA) was used to determine the physical state of the drug, excipients, and film formulations. The X-ray diffraction apparatus used CuK radiation at 40 mA, 40 kV, a scanning speed of 2à ¢- ¦/min, and diffraction angle (2ÃŽÂ ¸) range of 5-55. 2.9. Scanning electron Microscope (SEM) The surface morphology of the films was evaluated using SEM analysis. The samples were mounted on adhesive carbon pads placed on aluminum and sputter coated with gold using a Hummer sputtering system (Anatech Ltd, Springfield, VA, USA) in a high vacuum evaporator. A JEOL JSM-5600 SEM operating at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV was used for imaging. 2.10. In vivo taste evaluation Twenty-one naÃÆ' ¯ve adult male Sprague-Dawley rats (175-200 g) were ordered from Harlan Laboratories (Houston, TX, USA) for the study. The rats were housed in Plexiglass cages with Corncob bedding in a vivarium that maintained a 12 h light/dark cycle and an ambient temperature of ~22à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™. Food and water were available without any restriction, except during the training and taste evaluation experiments as mentioned below (2.10.1). All procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) at The University of Mississippi, University, USA (protocol no. 15-026). This study was performed as per the procedure in our previous publication on taste assessment method for bitter drugs [31]. 2.10.1. Training paradigm The rats were trained for licking behavior (response to thirst) by depriving them of water for 22 h, but they had ad libitum access to food. After the water deprivation period, the Plexiglass cage was divided using plastic transparent dividers to provide an individual water bottle to each animal. Eventually, the rats were provided with graduated water bottle for 30 min, and the amount consumed at 15 and 30 min were recorded. This training paradigm was performed for 2 days before the taste evaluation experiment. 2.10.2. Evaluation of bitterness sensitivity of rats To determine the concentration of CPM for this study, a sensitivity test for bitterness was performed in rats. After depriving the rats of water for 22 h, sensitivity toward 0.5 mg/mL CPM solution was evaluated on the first day, followed by a washout period of 24 h. Subsequently, the effect of 1 mg/mL CPM solution was examined, and the results were recorded. 2.10.3. Experiment The experiment was performed for 30 min with 30 mL test formulation following the 22 h water deprivation period. After each experiment, the rats had a washout period of 24 h to avoid any memory of the taste of the previous formulation. The rats had ad libitum access to food during the experiment and washout period. The amount of solution remaining at 15 and 30 min was noted and subtracted from the original test volume. Varying results caused by spilling of the test solution while measuring or leaking of bottle knob were omitted from the study. Notably, animal behavior responses such as jaw smacking, oral grooming, and retreating were observed, which was not the focus of this study. Formulations N2, N7, and N9 at 0.5 mg/mL CPM were used for bitterness evaluation study in rat model. The average amount of solution consumed by all animals was calculated and expressed as the mean standard deviation. The mean scores between the physical mixture and formulation were compared using a student t-test at 95% confidence level and P 2.11. Film evaluation by human panel The evaluation of film for palatability, disintegration time (DT), and organoleptic characteristics was performed at the Institute for Drug Delivery and Biomedical Research, Bangalore India (Protocol number VIPS/2013/12). The subjects were recruited after obtaining informed consent. This study is also in accordance with the Code of Ethics of the World Medical Association (Declaration of Helsinki). The experimental procedure for this study was as per our previously published work [10, 32]. 2.11.1. Human subject selection criteria Six human subjects belonging to either sex were recruited. They were asked to abstain from coffee/tea and other beverages for 12 h. The subjects were allowed to drink only water for 12 h. Moreover, they were asked not to eat chocolates or other candies for over 6 h. The inclusion criterion was healthy human subjects aged 18-42 years, and the exclusion criteria were subjects suffering from fever, mouth ulcers, dry mouth, cold, nose block, and wounds as well as smokers.   2.11.2. Data collection Before data collection, the subjects were asked to wash their mouth with water at ambient temperature. The surface temperature of the tongue was recorded using an infrared (IR) thermometer, and a difference of  ±5à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ relative to the body temperature was considered an exclusion criteria. 2.11.2.1. Bitterness perception The subjects were asked to taste aqueous solutions of CPM, beginning with very dilute solutions and progressing to higher concentrations, by placing 2 mL solution for 30 s on the tongue/buccal cavity. The concentrations screened were 0, 0.5, 1, 2.5, and 4 mg. The volunteers were asked to report the perception each time: 1- I feel bitter taste, 2- I feel something but cannot identify the taste, and 3-I do not feel the taste. The subjects who reported 2 or 3 were asked to taste higher concentrations of the solution until they expressed perception 1. This was recorded as the threshold for an individual. For individuals who reported a score of 1, at least 1/5th the drug concentration of the actual dose was only allowed for testing the products. A few high concentration API solutions above the individuals perception threshold were made for tasting, and the subjects were subsequently asked to provide a score for each solution (Table 3). The highest concentration of the solution contained C PM equivalent to the dose present in the products tested. The scoring pattern followed was according to modified hedonic scale: 0-no taste, 1- taste something (threshold), 2-slightly bitter, 3-moderately bitter, 4-bitter, and 5-strongly bitter. 2.11.2.2. Formulation evaluation and data analysis A washout interval of 12-24 h was allowed after screening the standard solution. The individuals were asked to taste the products (physical mixture or ODF) randomly (blinded) and score the product. The products were placed on the tongue/buccal cavity for 30-40 s, and the subjects were asked to score the bitterness on a scale of 0-5 for each product. Moreover, volunteers were asked to report the time for complete disintegration of the film. Sufficient washout time was allowed between the products, and the volunteers were allowed to drink copious amounts of water after tasting each product. The average of the scores given by all individuals were taken and expressed as the mean standard deviation. The mean scores between the physical mixture and formulation were compared using a student t-test at 95% confidence level, and P Results and Discussion 3.1. Preparation of hot-melt extruded film Modified starch is very difficult to extrude because of its high glass transition temperature. Thus, there is a need to introduce a plasticizer during extrusion, which could reduce the melt viscosity and increase the free volume of starch chains. For this study, glycerin was used as a plasticizer in different proportions, and it exhibited excellent extrudability with significantly lower torque (4.8-7.2 Nm) values than typically encountered. The barrel design was modified with a degassing port to remove excess amount of water vapor from the molten mass. Initial studies without a degassing port demonstrated the presence of bubbles as well as unequal distribution of drug in the film samples. Standard screw configuration (Figure 1) with three mixing zones was utilized for this study. It provided enough shear for dispersive and distributive mixing of the drug and helped get excellent content uniformity in all the extruded film formulations. The extruded films were stretched using the roll connected to the extruder assembly. This aided in making thin films with uniform thickness, and the roll speed was optimized for steady collection of the film. The combination of processing and formulation parameters helped to manufacture uniform, clear, and very thin films (60-110  µm) using melt extruder. 3.2. Physiochemical evaluation of films TGA is very critical before performing HME because the drug and excipients are exposed to high temperature during the extrusion process, and there are possibilities of drug degradation or thermally-induced chemical reactions or both [16]. The TGA results (Figure 2) specified that API, polymer, and excipients were chemically stable in the HME processing temperature range. Lycoat RS 780 demonstrated a loss of weight (33]. XRD was used to investigate the physical state of the drug after HME process. The XRD results (Figure 3a 3b) of CPM illustrated prominent peaks at 2ÃŽÂ ¸ angles of approximately 13, 19, and 20 degrees, while citric acid showed peaks at 2ÃŽÂ ¸ angles of 18, 19, and 26. The melt-extruded formulation did not show any peak that confirmed the presence of drug in an amorphous form. The reasons behind the complete conversion of drug to an amorphous form were the high shear during extrusion, low drug load, and relatively high amounts of glycerin. The presence of CPM and excipients in an amorphous form aided the flexibility and clear appearance of the film. 3.3. Dissolution studies Lycoat RS 780 is a comparatively new modified starch-based polymer, which demonstrated its significance in film coating for tablets and oral film development using solvent casting method [34, 35]. Being a non-gelling and highly water-soluble polymer, it provides rapid disintegration and dissolution to formulations. Visual inspection during dissolution demonstrated rapid disintegration of the film when it touched the dissolution media. This characteristic helps in the rapid onset of action of the formulation, because the drug can diffuse from the oral mucosa and reach the systemic circulation [36]. During dissolution studies, the formulations rapidly release CPM, and it was attributed to hydrophilic excipients and Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) class I drug. These films had very low thickness (60-110  µm) and higher surface area, which enabled interaction with dissolution media and rapid disintegration following complete dissolution. Dissolution results (Figure 4a 4b) showed ~95% drug release in the first 5 min of the dissolution experiment, and at 10-min time points, there was complete release of the drug. 3.4. SEM evaluation The surface morphology was examined by SEM for all film formulations. SEM images did not exhibit CPM crystals, indicating an amorphous nature of drug in formulations (Figure 5). The formulations showed very smooth surface at low magnification. This affirmed the smooth texture of film surface, which is one of the esthetic attributes of films. However, at microscopic level, there was high surface area, which helped in the rapid disintegration of the film. 3.5. Film characterizations As illustrated in Table 2, the film formulations demonstrated excellent D.T of 6-11 s, which was attributed to the thickness of the film and presence of water-soluble materials in the film. The formulations contained water-soluble excipients and APIs such as CPM, citric acid, glycerin, and modified starch. The most crucial parameter for disintegration is the low thickness of the film. As the films had a thickness range of 60-110  µm, they aided in the faster disintegration of all film formulations. In addition to the low thickness of the film, the amount of saliva in the oral cavity is very critical for rapid disintegration. The normal flow of saliva in a healthy person is 0.34 mL/min, and it can be increased by the addition of agents that simulate salivary production, including citric, malic, lactic, ascorbic, and tartaric acids [14]. Citric acid is the most preferred saliva-stimulating agent, and it was estimated that citric acid could increase salivary flow approximately 5- fold in 2-6% proportion in the formulation [14]. With the addition of citric acid, the pH of the films was found to be in the range of 2.9-3.4 and it could contribute in improving rate of salivary flow after administration of formulation which will aid in rapid disintegration of film product. All the film formulations were tested for their Ts and %E (Table 2). Ideally, the film should have desirable mechanical properties so that it can remain intact during handling and transport. ODFs showed appropriate strength and %E. These excellent mechanical properties were attributed to the presence of glycerol, citric acid, and CPM, which reduced film stiffness via disruption of intermolecular forces of the polymer owing to the accommodation of these compounds between the strands, thereby providing elasticity to the films [37, 38]. 3.6. In vivo taste evolution Firstly, the taste perception of rats was evaluated by administering 0.5 and 1 mg/mL CPM dissolved in distilled water. These results were important to avoid taste variability between animals (Figure 6), and showed that the rats consumed ~10 and ~14 mL of water in 15 and 30 min, respectively. The results of this study were comparable with those of the study published by Tiwari et.al. Thus, the rate and extent of consumption of water were reduced significantly to ~3 and ~5 mL in 15 and 30 min with the administration of 0.5 mg/mL CPM solution. At a higher concentration of 1 mg/mL, there was notable reduction in consumption of water to ~1.6 and ~2 mL at 15 and 30 min. Notably, this reduction in consumption of CPM solution despite deprivation of water for 22 h affirmed an aversion toward CPM. Moreover, aversion behaviors (Figure 7), such as jaw smacking, oral grooming, nose wrinkle, paw wipe, forelimb flail, head shake, paw shakes, and retreating confirmed the dislike of rats toward the d rug solution [39]. As illustrated in Figure 6, the rats consumed ~10 and 12.5 mL of N 2 solution (5% CPM in the film) in the first 15 and 30 min, and the amount was comparable with the consumption of water. In addition, N7 (10% CPM) exhibited consumption of ~ 4.7 and ~8 mL at 15 and 30 min. Furthermore, N9 (7.5% CPM) showed consumption of ~6.3 and 10 mL at 15- and 30-min time point. These results indicated that with increasing concentrations of CPM, there was noticeable reduction in the consumption of formulation. The rats did not show aversion behavior such as forelimb flail with N2 formulation. However, there was a surge in the aversion behavior response upon increasing the drug concentrations in N7 and N9,. The results of this study were very helpful to understand about the taste of pure drug and formulation. It provided an insight into the taste of products, which helped to screen this formulation for human studies. 3.7. Film evaluation by human panel Before evaluation of taste of the formulation, it is very important to understand the taste perception of human volunteers to minimize intra-subject variability. Taste perception study was performed on six healthy human volunteers. Initially, different concentrations of CPM in 2 mL of water were administered to the human subjects. Three subjects had threshold at 0.5 mg and the remaining three subjects reported moderate bitterness at the same concentration. A dose of 2.5 mg demonstrated bitterness in all subjects, and only three volunteers could taste higher concentration of CPM (4 mg, Table 3). This initial evaluation confirmed the appropriateness of the subjects for taste masking study. The results of taste masking evaluation in animal model suggested that formulation N2 with 5% CPM had significant taste masking. Moreover, this formulation had an excellent D.T (7 s) in in vitro studies. Based on t

Disproving the Theories of Evolution

Disproving the Theories of Evolution Abstract Natural selection is one of the numerous theories that attempt to explain the evolution of living things from their primitive origins to the more advanced organisms existing today. At its core, this theory supports the notion that only the strongest organisms survive in a changing environment while their weak counterparts die off. Nevertheless, various circles regard the evolutionary theory by natural selection as practically impossible. Since its conception, proponents of the theory have defended it with the help of serious misinformation and propaganda. However, the theory of evolution has been discredited entirely as being scientifically invalid by such fields as paleontology, genetics, biochemistry, and microbiology. Numerous findings continue to reveal that evolution never happened, is devoid of tangible scientific evidence, and is incompatible with the truth. One such area is the creationist perspective of the origin of life and the universe. Creationism provides the indication that the universe is the work of an Omniscient Creator. Scientific communitys Opposition Evolution has been and continues to be not only one of the most widely debated issue but also one of the most controversial. Some quarters have a serious problem with calling the Darwinist evolution a theory for the reason that it lacks testable explanations for observable occurrences (Isaak). The Darwinian theory of evolution postulates the idea that the planetary species arose through descent with progression and modification from a single common ancestor by the process of natural selection. While this presumption may contain some element of truth, it has not received complete acceptance across the entire spectrum of the society since evolutionary ideas first came to prominence in the early parts of the 19th century (Luskin). The first opposition to its tenets comes mainly from the scientific community, which has not found any past or present scientific evidence to validate the claims of Darwin. Moreover, todays criticisms and denials also come from all quarters in various forms su ch as creationism, neo-creationism, and intelligent design. Even though several points exist on either side of the creationism versus evolution argument, notwithstanding the gaps on both sides of the divide, it becomes apparent that the theory of evolution has some serious fundamental flaws. Creationism is the belief that concept and design require a creator (Sarfati and Mathews). When applied to detecting design in the universe and life, this principle becomes a more reasonable explanation to believe in a higher power as the Creator or Designer of both (Sarfati and Mathews). Unlike the concept of evolution, which remains unproven and continues to lack even the slightest experimental or observational support, the creationist argument is sound because it argues against a set of misunderstandings about evolution that people are right to consider ludicrous (Fodor and Piattelli-Palmarini). For this reason, a large part of the society is likely to embrace creationism. Moreover, various religious denominations already propagate the belief in a higher power, making creationism more intellectually and socially palatable to a majority of people, both scholars and lay audiences. A related issue is the tendency of individuals to identify with things, beliefs, or concepts that exemplify the best of humanity or portray humans as special. In this regard, creationism hits the nail on the head as it conceives the advent of humankind as a deliberate, personal, well-thought out, and loving process. In contrast, evolution paints a grim picture of a random, impersonal, and d etached process that does not appeal to the moral and spiritual sensibilities of many people, hence its unpopularity. The first claim against natural selection, the central premise upon which the theory of evolution rests, is that it lacks the power to be responsible for all the variability seen in all the innumerable forms of life. A close inspection shows that neither natural selection nor mutation has any evolutionary force or gives the slightest support to the notion that living things can evolve and gradually turn into a new species (Yahya). Natural selection predicts the survival of organisms possessing the most appropriate characteristics for their natural habitats and the extinction of those that lack the advantages (Rennie). For instance, in a herd of deer threatened by wolves, those who run fastest survive and those who do not run swiftly are hunted down and eliminated resulting in a herd of swift-running deer. However, no matter how long the process lasts, the deer will a lways remain a deer and never another species. For that reason, natural selection cannot cause the development of a new species, much less new life forms (Yahya). Competition for survival The second criticism of evolution driven by the process of natural selection concerns the assertion that the living world is in a perpetual competition for survival, something Darwinism calls the survival of the fittest (Yahya). Several reliable observations continue to reveal that organisms, particularly those at more advanced levels such as humans and dolphins display solidarity and social behavior that can be defined as cooperation. Therefore, the survival of the fittest might not be any more superior or significant than the survival of the luckiest (Yahya). The weakness of evidence The third criticism against evolution is that several lines of evidence for Darwinian evolution and common ancestry are weak. Firstly, there is the failure of development of biology in explaining why vertebrate embryos start diverging from the very beginning of development. Secondly, DNA and molecular evidence paint conflicting pictures about the grand tree of life (Luskin). Lastly, available fossil records do not provide proof for the Darwinian evolution (Luskin). The evidence of small-scale changes commonly paraded by evolutionists such as the slight variations in the color of wings of peppered moths or the size of finch beaks are isolated cases of microevolution and are not evidential proof for macroevolution (Rennie). Conclusion Even though evolutionists portray the theory of evolution as a scientific fact, various findings for the several years separating Charles Darwin and the present day has utterly disapproved this theory. Darwinism is inconsistent with the truth, and its principles of natural selection and mutation have been shown to lack any evolutionary power to create new species. The more the details of nature and scientific studies have been revealed, the more extraordinary characteristics of life in its diversity have been discovered that can never be explained in terms of natural selection. Works Cited Fodor, Jerry, and Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini. Survival of the Fittest Theory: Darwinisms Limits. New Scientist, 3 Feb. 2010, www.newscientist.com/article/mg20527466.100-survival-of-the-fittest-theory-darwinisms-limits?full=true. Accessed 20 Feb. 2017. Isaak, Mark. Five Major Misconceptions About Evolution. TalkOrigins Archive: Exploring the Creation/Evolution Controversy, 1 Oct. 2003, www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html. Accessed 20 Feb. 2017. Luskin, Casey. Punctuated Equilibrium and Patterns from the Fossil Record. Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Center, 9 Sept. 2004, www.ideacenter.org/contentmgr/showdetails.php/id/1232. Accessed 20 Feb. 2017. Rennie, John. 15 Answers to Creationist Nonsense. Scientific American, 1 July 2002, Nature America, Inc.. www.scientificamerican.com/article/15-answers-to-creationist/. Accessed 20 Feb. 2017. Sarfati, Jonathan, and Michael Mathews. Refuting Evolution 2 Chapter 4: Argument: Natural Selection Leads to Speciation. Creation | Creation Ministries International, Creation Ministries, creation.com/refuting-evolution-2-chapter-4-argument-natural-selection-leads-to-speciation#noteref. Accessed 20 Feb. 2017. Yahya, Harun. Confessions of the Evolutionists. Global Publishing, www.muslim-library.com/dl/books/English_CONFESSIONS_OF_THE_EVOLUTIONISTS.pdf. Accessed 20 Feb. 2017.

Independence Of Judiciary In Australia :: essays research papers

Independence of Judiciary in Australia a) How is the independence of the judiciary guaranteed in Australia? While the Westminster system had largely developed because of the doctrine of separation of powers, the Australian system of government is largely based on the Westminster. This doctrine of separation of powers proposes that the three institutions of government, the legislature, the executive and the judiciary should be exercised as separate and independent branches. It is this doctrine that stresses the need for the independence of the judiciary from the other two government institutions in order to protect the freedom of individuals. It is under this doctrine that no person can be a Member of Parliament and a judge at the same time. The doctrine of separation of powers offers several advantages, it proposes separate, specialized and efficient branches of government and it also reduces the abuse of government power by dividing it. a) Why is the independence of the judiciary an important feature of Australia's system of justice? The judiciary is the government branch that is concerned with the administration of justice. The judiciary is absolutely separate from the executive and the legislature, so it can check the concentration of government power. The independence of the judiciary is crucial of a democratic community because when judges are presiding over cases, there must be no interference and intimidation from the external forces. The independence issues touches upon the conflict of authority and freedom. If the doctrine of separation of powers did not exist, the authority would not be prevented from interfering in the administration of justice, therefore the basic freedoms of the citizens would not be guaranteed. It is up to the judiciary to exercise according to the law. It would be without the independence of the judiciary that the principles of rule of law and natural justice would be jeopardy and other institutions of government would interfere in the administration of justice. There are three main elements of the independence of the judiciary they are, permanency of tenure, dismissal by parliament and fixed remuneration. Permanency of tenure means that judges are appointed by the executive government and have a permanent tenure until they have to retire at the age of seventy. It was a constitutional referendum in 1977 that placed this requirement on federal judges. Also state laws have been made, for the state judges to retire at the same age. The only exception is the Family court justices; they have to retire at the age of sixty-five. Judges can only be dismissed on the grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity and can only be dismissed by parliament representatives.

Child Development Essay -- Health, Childhood Obesity

There are multiple factors in a child’s development. Parents have a responsibility, as well as a privilege, to contribute to every milestone. Most parents stress over physical and mental stages so much so that play-time is ignored. By making decisions that sacrifice play parents hinder their social development. Parents must take action and encourage their youth to play more, before childhood is lost forever. Play-time is an essential part of early childhood development as well as their most primitive form of expression. In an article titled â€Å"The Importance of Play† by Bruno Bettelheim, he refers to Sigmund Freud’s thoughts that play is a child’s first step in attaining â€Å"cultural and psychological achievements†. (Bettelheim 324) The author also mentions Freud’s notation of how children use play to â€Å"express† themselves. (Bettelheim 324) Play is vital for the maturation of toddlers’ emotional and mental health. Bettelheim, in his article, reflects on Fraud’s understanding of â€Å"how children use play to work through and master quite complex psychological difficulties of the past and present†. (Bettelheim 324) As a mother, I agree with this insight because I can witness the day’s events unfold through my son’s eyes as he holds batman and robin figures. Today’s culture views the media as a necessity. One class of media entertainment is television. Television is often exchanged for play among children. Marie Winn wrote â€Å"The End of Play† commenting on how children have replaced â€Å"fantasy and make-believe games† for television. (Winn 76) A research study in USA Today showed results of a survey indicating â€Å"14% of parents said TV is always on.†(Par 4) Their findings point out â€Å"TV decreased play’s intensity to given toy†. (Par 3... ...thout recess, children are denied elements for social development. Physical education classes, or P.E., are the higher grades’ version of recess. At this level, juveniles engage in a more structured program with specific objectives. In Education Digest, Ann Rosewater from Team Up for Youth reflects on how organized sports are a bridge to adult achievements. Her report on the impact of organized sports exclaims â€Å"participation in physical activities have long term positive effects†. (Par 7) Details assert juveniles â€Å"connect with positive peer groups and provide the experience of failing yet trying again†. (Par 8, 9) As parents we want our children to experience the joys of childhood. One’s child rearing choices are the most dominate factors in adolescents. Parents must control the outside influences interfering with their emotional and physical maturity.